Michael L. Fitzgerald, M.Afr.
Some Notes on the Islamic View of Women

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INTRODUCTION

 It is not possible to discuss the issue of women in society according to Islam as if the world of Islam were homogeneous. Islam, just as any other world religion, exhibits cultural differences. An example, simple in nature and even banal, could be the participation of women in trade. Whereas in the souks of North Africa it would be rare to find women among the store-keepers, in Indonesia they appear to be the most active in the market.

 It is true that there is a body of Qur'ânic teaching on women, and that rules and regulations have been developed by Islamic law. Custom is nevertheless strong and has considerable influence on the way Qur'ânic and legal principles are applied. Here an example could be the attitude to the legal impurity of women caused through menstruation. Because of this impurity women, in some parts of the Islamic world, have been totally excluded from the mosque and thus from an important segment of the Islamic way of life. Yet elsewhere a special section of the mosque is provided for women, and they frequent the prayers and the Friday preaching in large numbers.

 Since it is not possible to treat all the situations in which Muslim women find themselves, the limitations of a general presentation will have to be recognised. Some of the features of the teaching of the Qur'ân as it effects women will be treated first. This will be followed by examples of the development of Islamic law on certain points. Finally some contemporary positions on women in society will be summarily presented.

1. QUR'ÂN

1.1 Preliminary observation

 It is fitting to start with a preliminary observation. The Qur'ân is not a systematic work. It is not a credo, though it contains the basic elements of Islamic faith. It is not a code of law, though it contains ample legislative material. It is not a manual of moral theology, though it pays particular attention to ethical matters. The Qur'ân is the record of a message preached over a period of 22 years, from about 610 to the death of Muhammad in 632. It is by its nature fragmentary. Even legislative passages contain decisions which originated from particular situations, solutions for the problems arising in the life of the first Muslim community.

1.2 Improvement in the Status of Women

 It is commonplace to say that Islam improved the status of women. This would seem to be entirely accurate as regards certain aspects of life.

 Infanticide, especially the killing of female offspring, is condemned. "Say: Come, I will recite unto you that which the Lord hath made a sacred duty for you: that ye slay not your children because of penury — We provide for you and for them" (The Meaning of The Glorious Qur'ân, 6:151; cf. 6:140). Irony is used against the preference of males over females: "And they assign unto Allah daughters — Be He Glorified — and unto themselves what they desire; when if one of them receiveth tidings of the birth of a female, his face remaineth darkened, and he is wroth inwardly. He hideth himself from his folk because of the evil of that whereof he hath tidings, (asking himself): Shall he keep it in contempt, or bury it beneath the dust. Verily evil is their judgement" (16:57-59). In one of the earliest suras, announcing God's judgement on the Last Day, the "girl-child that was buried alive" appears as a witness for the prosecution asking "for what sin she was slain" (81:8-9).

 Women are allowed to inherit (4:11 and passim) although, as will be seen later, inequality between males and females is built into the laws of inheritance.  Women are to be respected, particularly mothers, as can be deduced from the concise injunction: "Be careful of your duty toward Allah in Whom you claim (your rights) of one another, and towards the wombs (that bare you)" (4:1).

1.3 Basic Equality

 "Islam views the woman as a human being like the man without any differences between them except in so far as is dictated by the nature of human structure" (Khayyat, Abdul Aziz, "Women's Status in Islam", p. 17). Women are prepared for pregnancy; childbirth, suckling and raising children. They have special duties in this respect. Apart from this there is equality between males and females as regards rights and duties (ibid.).

 This equality is based on a common origin. All human beings spring from, "a single soul" (4:1). Everything has its origin in God the Creator. He created male and female (49:13). Sexual difference is thus of divine origin. This fact should lead to the greatest respect with regard to sexual relations and reverence for the womb that bears life.

 Men and women are equal in the sight of God. "I suffer not the work of any worker, male or female, to be lost" (3:195). They will be judged in the same way and will receive the same reward: "And whoso does good works, whether of male or female, and he (or she) is a believer, such will enter paradise and they will not be wronged the dint in a date-stone" (4:124; cf. 16:17). Another verse shows that they are not to have the same qualities: "Lo! men who surrender unto Allah, and women who surrender, and men who believe and women who believe, and men who obey ... Allah hath prepared for them forgiveness and a vast reward" (33:35).

1.4 Propriety in Relations

 Islam is concerned to protect women from unwanted attention. This can be seen in the prescriptions about entering houses: "O you who believe! Enter not houses other than your own without first announcing your presence and invoking peace upon the folk thereof ... And if ye find no-one therein, still enter not until permission hath been given" (24:27-28). There is also the obligation of custody of the eyes and of modesty in dress, both for men and women. For men the formulation is quite succinct: "Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and be modest. That is purer for them. Lo! Allah is aware of what they do" (24:30). For women it is more developed: "and tell the believing women to lower their gaze and be modest, and to display of their adornment only that which is apparent, and to draw their veils over their bosoms" (24:31). There then follows a list of the people, husbands, near male relatives, women and children, to whom women can show their adornment. A further verse deals with this subject: "O Prophet! Tell thy wives and thy daughters and the women of the believers to draw their cloaks close round them (when they go abroad). That will be better, so that they may be recognised and not annoyed" (33:59).

 It will be noticed that the Qur'ân itself does not stipulate exactly which parts of the body are to be covered. It is tradition which will lay down that only the face, palms of the hands and feet are to be exposed. It is custom that will establish the idea of purdah, or seclusion of women.

 In its concern for propriety in relations, the Qur'ân lays down severe punishment for sexual offences. The punishment for adultery or fornication, whether by a man or by a woman, is one hundred stripes (this was later changed to execution by stoning) (24:2). Yet women's reputation is to be protected. An accusation of sexual misconduct, if not supported by four eye-witnesses, will be considered false and will bring a punishment of eighty stripes on the accuser (24:4). Four witnesses are required on another occasion: "As for those of your women who are guilty of lewdness, call to witness four of you against them. And if they testify (to the truth of the allegation) then confine them to the houses until death take them or until Allah appoint for them a way" (4:15). Since the sin of adultery and fornication is dealt with in 24:2 already referred to, some commentators think that this verse is concerned with lesbian relations. This interpretation could be borne out by the following verse: "And as for the two of you who are guilty thereof, punish them both. And if they repent and improve, then let them be" (4:16). This could refer to two men and thus to homosexual relations.

1.5 Marriage

 The only place for sexual relations is therefore in marriage. In Islam this is essentially a contract (nikâh) established, as with all contracts, before witnesses, at least two men, or one man and two women (cf. 2:282). The Qur'ân states: "But plight not your troth with women except by uttering a recognised form of words. And do not consummate the marriage until (the term) prescribed is run" (2:235).

 The dowry is an essential part of the marriage contract: "And give unto the women (whom ye marry) free gift of their marriage portions; but if they of their own accord remit unto you a part thereof, then ye are welcome to absorb it (in your wealth)" (4:4). Here the term used is saduqât, which is similar in form to sadaqa, free alms-giving. Elsewhere (4:24) the Qur'ân will speak of ujûr from ajr which means recompense or wage.

 What is important to understand here is that the dowry becomes and remains the woman's property. She has no obligation to use it for the upkeep of the family. There is no communion of goods in Islamic marriage. The husband has to provide for the needs of the family, both for his wife and for his children. The wife can require payment for suckling the children she has borne, or suggest that another woman be hired for this task (cf. 65:6). The man has to provide the house: "Lodge them where you dwell, according to your wealth, and harass them not so as to straiten life for them" (ibid.).

 This last verse quoted says "where you dwell". It is quite possible that the Qur'ân marks a change in contemporary Arab society from uxorilocal to virilocal marriage. It is nevertheless important to notice that if the wife has the right to cohabitation, she also has the obligation of following her husband.

 There is a further duty of obedience. The Qur'ân says: "Men are in charge of women" (4:34). Two reasons are given: "because Allah hath made one of them to excel the other" (this is usually taken as referring to physical strength) and "because they spend of their property (for the support of women)" (ibid.). The verse continues: "So good women are the obedient, guarding in secret that which Allah hath guarded". It then goes on to describe how to deal with the disobedient: "As for those from whom ye fear rebellion, admonish them and banish them to beds apart, and scourge them. Then if they obey you, seek not a way against them. The translation "scourge" seems rather strong; "beat" would be more accurate. Yet even this causes surprise, and there are Muslims who express the opinion that this Qur'ânic precept was limited to the time in which it was given, and does not hold good under present conditions where relations between husband and wife are much closer.

 Moreover the Qur'ân does give a better idea of matrimonial relations. Men are not to inherit women (i.e. the wives of deceased kinsmen) against their will, they are not to deprive them of their dower, but are to treat them with kindness (macrûf, which means acceptable behaviour according to custom) (cf. 4:19). There is a certain mutuality: "They (your wives) are raiment for you and ye are raiment for them" (2:187). This is according to the will of God, for the Qur'ân says: "And of His signs is this: He created for you helpmeets from yourselves that ye might find rest in them, and He ordained between you love and mercy" (30:21).

1.6 Impediments to Marriage

 The Qur'ân lists various impediments such as consanguinity and affinity (4:23). It may be noted that while a man is not allowed to marry his paternal or maternal aunt, marriage with the aunt's daughter is not prohibited. Marriage between cousins has always been highly prized in Arab society.

 A further impediment exists, that of religion: "Wed not idolatresses (al-mushrikât) till they believe" (2:221). It is permitted for a man to marry "virtuous women of those who received the Scripture before you" (5:5), that is the People of the Book, Jews and Christians. It is not, however, permissible for a Muslim woman to marry a non-Muslim. The reasoning behind this is simple: the offspring follow the father; if he is not a Muslim neither will his children be brought up as Muslims, and this would be a loss for the umma, the Muslim community.

1.7 Polygamy

 The Qur'ân contains a verse which allows the possibility of polygamy. It is useful to quote this verse in its context:

 It can be remarked first that what is allowed is polygamy, for a man to take several wives. Polyandry, for a woman to have several husbands at the same time, is not allowed. The reason for this is that the paternity of eventual children would be uncertain.

 The immediate reason for the permission is the situation of the small Muslim community which has been engaged in wars. The men have fallen in battle and numerous women and children remain. Who will look after them? The permission is granted to take more than one wife in order to provide for those who are in need.

 It should further be observed that there are certain conditions. Concubines are allowed. In a society in which slavery was practised, the master could have sexual relations with his female slaves. Legitimate wives, however, were limited to four on condition of treating them justly. Later legislation will determine what this means as regards lodging, sustenance and the observance of conjugal rights. But the Qur'ân says elsewhere: "Ye will not be able to deal equally between (your) wives, however, much ye wish (to do so)" (4:129). Some Muslims see here a Qur'ânic recommendation towards monogamy, arguing that equal treatment not only in material affairs but also in affection is impossible. Others prefer to hold to the text of the Qur'ân, allowing the possibility of up to four wives.

1.8 Divorce

 The ideal of good matrimonial relations does not always hold. Instead of love and compassion there can develop misunderstanding and antipathy. Islam, which holds as a principle that "Allah desireth for you ease; He desireth not hardship for you" (2:185), admits divorce. However before any decision is taken an attempt to bring about reconciliation must be made: "and if you fear a breach between them twain (the man and wife), appoint an arbiter from his folk and an arbiter from her folk. If they desire amendment Allah will make them of one mind" (4:35). This verse demonstrates that marriage does not concern the couple only, but involves also their respective families.

 The Qur'ân goes into considerable detail on the question of repudiation (talâq) (2:226-232). This is the man's prerogative. Repudiation can be revoked twice but becomes definitive if pronounced a third time. It does not however become immediately effective. The Qur'ân lays down a waiting-period (cidda) of four months, or more exactly of three menstrual periods. The reason for this is twofold: first to provide a time for possible reconciliation and secondly to see whether the woman is pregnant in which case the husband will still be responsible for the child. Here it could be said that the primary concern of the Qur'ân is the welfare of the child and not that of the woman. After the waiting-period the woman's right to maintenance ceases. There is no alimony in the Islamic conception of divorce.

 In the above-mentioned passage there is mention of another type of procedure for divorce, known as khulc. "And if ye fear that they may not be able to keep the limits of Allah, in that case it is no sin for either of them if the woman ransoms herself" (2:229). In other words the woman can take the initiative to bring about a divorce by mutual consent, offering some financial compensation, for example to restore the dowry that has been paid.

1.9 Marriage for a Determined Period

 A verse on marriage has given rise to a practice which the Shîca have retained. "Lawful unto you are all beyond those mentioned, so that you seek them with your wealth in honest wedlock, not debauchery. And those of whom ye seek content (istamtactum) (by marrying them), give unto them their portions as a duty" (4:24). The Shîca base themselves on this verse to uphold what is known as "mutca marriage", or marriage of enjoyment, which is a marriage contract for a stipulated period (one day, one month, one year ... ninety-nine years). It could at first sight seem to be a form of legalised prostitution. It is said that the permission granted for this type of marriage by the Qur'ân was revoked by the Caliph cUmar. The Shica, opposed to cUmar, have not accepted this ruling and maintain the possibility of this form of marriage, considering it even a special source of blessing.

1.10 Discrimination against Women

 Though as believers women and men are equal, nevertheless there are certain legal dispositions which discriminate against women. These lie in the law of inheritance and in that of witness.

 As has been mentioned above, it would seem that Islam did bring in an innovation in allowing women to inherit. Nevertheless the Qur'ân states clearly "to the male the equivalent of the portion of two females" (4:11; 4:176). This is applied throughout the whole system of inheritance. The reason for the difference is, as has been explained, that women do not bear financial responsibility for the family.

 In the context of drawing up a bill of credit, it is said: "And call to witness, from among your men, two witnesses. And if two men be not (at hand) then a man and two women, as such as ye approve as witnesses, so that if the one erreth (through forgetfulness) the other will remember" (2:282). This would seem to be disparaging to women. A contemporary Muslim explains that "this right was jointly given to two women so that each of them may remind the other concerning the event or the case they are giving evidence about especially in crimes like murder and criminal attack, because women are usually more sentimental and easily moved than men, and therefore they must give joint evidence" (Khayyat, p. 24). The same author does attempt to give a more positive interpretation: "The one woman evidence or testimony is accepted in matters related to women like testimony on birth, descent, suckling, etc. It is an honour accorded to the woman that she is not exposed to what man is made to confront in transaction, sales, debts and other dealings leading to law courts and appearing before the judge and being cross examined by plaintiffs, attorneys and others. Thus woman's testimony is required only in cases of urgency" (p. 25).

2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRADITION

2.1 General Remarks

 The Qur'ân is only the first of the "roots" (usûl) of Islamic jurisprudence. The others are Tradition (sunna), analogical reasoning (qiyâs) and consensus (ijmâc). On these bases Islamic law has been developed according to four schools, the Mâlikî, the Hanafî, the Hanbalî. To these could be added the Jacfarî school, which is that of the Twelver Shîcites who form the majority of the Shîca.

 It will not be possible to give in full detail the situation of women according to these schools, though some references will be made to their teaching, as also to modern codes of personal status of certain majority Muslim countries (cf. Hinchcliffe, D.) It can be stated generally that tradition has tended to harden male domination, whereas the modern codes attempt to redress the situation in favour of women.

2.2 The Marriage Contract

 Women of the Mâlikî, Hanbalî and Shâficî schools do not have the capacity to contract their own marriages. This will always be done for them by a guardian (wâlî). A Hanafî woman can contract her own marriage, but her guardian may attack the contract if he considers that the chosen partner is not her equal.

 The Hanabî school allows stipulations to be inserted into the contract. This possibility can be used to allow the woman greater freedom. The contract could, for instance, stipulate that the husband must allow his wife to continue working outside the home if she so wishes.

 The first right of the woman, and an essential part of the contract, is the dower. This is usually divided into two parts: the "prompt" dower, which is payable as soon as the contract is agreed, and the "deferred" dower, which will become payable on the termination of the marriage, either by death or divorce. This device is used as a safeguard for the women against the man's capricious use of his right to repudiate her.

 With regard to impediments to marriage mention could be made of the impediment of mixed religion. Modern codes, for example those of Morocco and Iraq, have maintained this. The Tunisian code states that neither of the future partners must be under an impediment "according to the law". This in itself could refer to the code of law which does not mention religion in this respect. However jurisprudence has interpreted it as referring to "religious law" (sharîca), and so the impediment of mixed religion remains, in particular for the woman who cannot marry a non-Muslim. This has its consequence when a Muslim woman, residing in a non-Muslim country but a citizen of a Muslim majority country, wishes to marry a non-Muslim. Often the authorities of her country of origin will not deliver a certificate of freedom unless the future husband becomes a Muslim.

2.3 Married Life

 The wife has the right to maintenance as long as the marriage exists. This right, which extends to food, clothing and reasonable accommodation, but not to medical expenses, holds good even if the woman is capable of maintaining herself. She, on her part, has no obligation to contribute to the maintenance of her husband even if he is in need. This duty devolves upon his children or his near relatives.

 The counterpart to maintenance is obedience. On the one hand, the husband can require his wife to accompany him when he travels. On the other hand, he has the right to forbid her to leave his house, even for the seemingly innocent purpose of visiting friends. If the wife is disobedient he has the right to suspend her maintenance. The law gives him the right to inflict physical punishment on her, provided he does not cause her serious injury. In such situations the wife has little possibility of seeking redress.

2.4 Polygamy

 The husband has the right to take additional wives, as long as the number of four wives at any one time is not surpassed. According to Shîca law, the man can also contract mutca marriages. In traditional law the husband is not required to obtain permission from his first wife before taking another.

 Here again the Hanbalî system of stipulation can work in favour of the first wife. She can have inserted into the marriage contract that if her husband takes another wife she will have the right to seek divorce.

 It is probable that modem conditions of life, not only economic but also with regard to the expectations concerning married life, have reduced the incidence of polygamy. It is certainly true that the modern codes have brought in more stringent conditions. The Moroccan code requires that the second wife must know that her future husband is already married. It also allows the first wife to add a stipulation that her husband should not take a second wife. The Iraqi code makes a judicial intervention necessary. It is the judge who will ascertain whether the husband is capable of treating his wives equally. The Tunisian code goes even further, making polygamy a punishable offence.

2.5 Divorce

 It is in matters of divorce that male domination becomes most apparent. Although repudiation is considered to be "the legitimate act most abhorrent in the eyes of God", it is nevertheless supported as a man's right. The husband may repudiate his wife at will, with no real reason. Traditionally a repudiation pronounced in jest or in an intoxicated state will be held to be valid.

 Here again the modern codes have intervened to curb what has perhaps been a cause of greater distress to women than polygamy, since it has put them in a very precarious situation. For instance, the Moroccan code considers without legal effect any repudiation pronounced in a state of intoxication or anger or under duress. The Tunisian code has simply taken away from the man the unilateral right of repudiation. Only the judge can pronounce a divorce.

 Women have no right corresponding to that of their husbands. Some of the schools do allow the wife to appeal for a divorce on the grounds of ill treatment. She also has the possibility of offering compensation in exchange for her freedom. In the Hanafî school the only grounds on which a woman can apply to the courts for a dissolution is the incapacity of her husband to consummate the marriage.

2.6 Guardianship of Children

 The divorced woman retains custody of her children only for a limited period of time. The period differs according to the schools, from a minimum of two years (end of weaning) to the whole time of childhood until the age of puberty. Even during this period the child's legal guardian, the father or the nearest male relative, has the right not only to control the child's education but also to contract marriage for the infant without the mother's consent.

 The question of guardianship can become dramatic in the cases of mixed marriages which end in divorce. The wife, the non-Muslim partner, may well see her children taken away from her or prevented from coming to visit her.

3. CONTEMPORARY VIEWS OF WOMEN

3.1 A Traditional View

 In a colloquium on "Women in Society" organised jointly by the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue and the Royal Academy for Islamic Civilisation Research, Amman, the paper on women's status in Islam was given by Dr Abdul Aziz Khayyat, a religious scholar and former minister in the Jordanian Government. In the second part of his paper he listed the "aspects of reverence" which Islam has accorded to women.

 First of all he pointed out that, according to Islam, it was not the woman who urged Adam to eat that forbidden fruit. Thus woman is not under any curse and should not be stigmatised. He then presented the lack of financial responsibility of the wife for her children as a recognition of her role in the home. It is an honour for women to have men as their protectors. Dr Khayyat's position on evidence and on inheritance has already been referred to. The possibility of polygamy, in case of need such as the sterility or illness of the first wife, is also seen as an honour for women. It is, in his opinion, more dignified for a woman to be a second wife than to be a mistress who can be cast off at any time. The financial independence of the wife is a further proof of the dignity Islam confers upon her. Divorce, he pointed out, is "essentially forbidden and should not be resorted to except where it is necessary". He quoted a hadîth form Muhammad: "Marry and divorce not; for God does not love men and women who quickly get bored of their spouses and wish to try others". Yet permission for the woman to seek divorce is considered another feature of her dignity. The veil too is an aspect of woman's dignity, since it helps to enhance her modesty and chastity. Finally Dr Khayyat referred to the woman's right to choose her husband, though she should secure her guardian's approval (Khayyat, pp. 23-28).

 It must be recorded that Dr Khayyat's presentation, which could be called an apologetic for the traditional attitude towards women in society, did not meet with unconditional approval from all the Muslim women present at the colloquium. There are today feminist currents in Islam to which we must now turn (cf. Sr Lucie Pruvost, MSOLA, SEDOS, 11 March 1993). There are two main lines of thought, fundamentalist and modernist. They both have the same starting point, the degraded situation of the Muslim woman which has deleterious consequences for society as a whole. Both are engaged in the transformation of society, but the society they are aiming for and the methods they use are different.

3.2 The Fundamentalist Approach

 Fundamentalists generally practice a "return to the sources". This can be done in two ways. Those belonging to the Reformist tradition accept the status of women as it was at the beginning of Islam, since Islam saved women from a disastrous situation. Subordination to men is seen as a value to be kept, for women are different in nature. They are therefore less fit for certain professions, such as judge, but more suited to activities of a social nature. The freedom for women to go and come as they wish, without male supervision, is rejected, as is co-education. The veil is often a symbol of this tendency, marking this return to the sources.

3.3 The Modernist Approach

 The Modernists also wish to return to the sources, but they interpret them in a different way. Usually more familiar with Western thought, and with feminist movements in the West, they tend to re-read the sources with the help of modern literary criticism. For example Riffat Hassan, a Pakistani now teaching in the U.S.A., has been engaged in a feminist reading of the Qur'ân. Fatima Mernissi, a Moroccan, has been studying the hadîth literature to show how misogynist traditions had been invented.

 Access to the world of work is what they are advocating primarily, fully conscious that in opposing male predominance they will be accused of subverting society. In the already mentioned Christian-Muslim colloquium on "Women in Society", both Muslim women speakers emphasised the active role of women in society. Dr Omaymah Dahhan, an economist, attributed the lack of participation of women in the work force in the Arab world to early marriage and to low levels of education. It is obvious that these two are connected, for studies are often interrupted on account of marriage. Dr Dahhan therefore recommended that the levels of women's education and skills be raised, that facilities be developed to remove obstacles preventing women from combining their economic and family role (day-care centres, nurseries), but also that women should be supported and encouraged to participate in positions of authority, including political participation (Dahhan, pp. 71-93, especially 92-93).

 Dr Samira Khawaldeh, principal of a private Islamic school, underlined the permanent principles of Islam which lay the foundations for women's activity in society. There is the role of faith as a source of mental health. "By believing in the values of Islam woman can render herself, future generations, and mankind the greatest service" (Khawaldeh, "Future Opportunities and Prospects for Women in Islam", p. 102). There is the basic equality between man and woman, from which follows woman's enjoyment of full civil rights; yet the distinct nature of woman, both physical and psychological, without this interfering with the principle of equality. Dr Khawaldeh takes exception to those Muslims who, in order to prevent sin and social problems, would deprive women of the opportunity to interact in society. One expression of this would be imposing the veil and stopping Muslim girls from attending mixed universities. She sums up her paper on the future of women in society by listing the opportunities Islam offers them (ibid., pp. 97-106, especially p. 106):

CONCLUSION

 In concluding this short paper on Islamic views of women it is necessary to emphasise again the fragmentary nature of this study. It is to be considered more in the nature of sounding than of a complete description of the situation of women. It may yet have been sufficient to allow some understanding of this situation and to show that a fertile field lies open for co-operation between Christians and Muslims. In this respect it may be useful to end with a summary of the conclusions of the colloquium on "Women in Society according to Islam and Christianity".

1.  Both religions, Islam and Christianity, believe in God's creation as the foundation for the dignity of human nature in which man and woman share equally. Yet they recognise the differences between men and women as God-given.

2.  The importance of the family is stressed. The responsibility of both parents remains the basis for the development and stability of a healthy family. The particular role of the woman in the family is considered vital, but it is recognised that she can have an influence in the educational, social and economic fields. This extra dimension of her role is not always sufficiently appreciated and supported.

3.  Thus the role of the woman in the family and her work at home is considered essential, but full recognition is given to her right to engage in other activities according to capabilities and circumstances, and in accordance with the principles of each religion.

4.  It is recognised that misguided practices exist which undermine woman's dignity and her potential. These are the product of social traditions. Constant effort is required to correct them.

5.  Concern was expressed about the exploitation of women which violates their dignity.

6.  There are shortcomings in legislation concerning such matters as terms of employment, remuneration, training, maternity leave. Christians and Muslims should work together to improve legislation.

7.  There is a need to increase awareness of religious values in order to help to guarantee women's dignity and to help women fulfil their role in society.

Ref.: Encounter,No. 224, April 1996.